Case Based Learning and Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Case Based Learning

Case Based Learning (CBL) can encompass many of the learning theories of which we’ve learned: goal-based scenarios and anchored instruction, for example. CBL emphasizes learning in context and helps students develop skills in analytical thinking and reflective judgment by reading and discussing complex, real-life scenarios. First used in law schools, and then business schools, case based learning allows students to be involved in dynamic learning.  Cases have stories or storylines with which students can interact, and through these storylines, students learn from the experiences of others.  CBL is used primarily to teach students about realistic decision-making situations; while it is used less in K-12 than in higher education, cases can be designed for students of all ages and abilities.  Cases can be designed with either complete or incomplete information; cases can also be designed to incorporate multimedia.  Students are involved in conversation and reasoning as they work to solve the problem.  Multimedia and web 2.0 tools can be used in Case Based Learning lesson construction.  Students could interview virtual experts, participants, or witnesses. Case designers could collect and organize resources using a social bookmarking web service like Delicious, and GoogleDocs, for example, allows for asynchronous student collaboration. One drawback to Case Based Learning is the time required to collect resources and design the lesson.  Collaboration among teachers who would bring various skills to the design team would be one way to lessen the workload.

Case Based Reasoning

Case Based Reasoning (CBR) differs from CBL in that multiple cases are presented for students to study and compare.  As in CBL, prior solutions can be adapted to new problems and students see how prior cases can be related to new cases.  CBR is present in everyday human problem solving: all reasoning can be said to be based on past cases personally experienced.  The process of CBR consists of four steps: Retrieve, Reuse, Revise, and Retain.

There are case based reasoning activity and lesson repositories that teachers may access, and there are resources, such as the Turf Grass Library, where students may retrieve cases similar to the cases they are studying.

Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT) proposes that individuals learn and grasp the nature of complex information more readily by being presented with multiple media representations, multiple case perspectives, and learner interaction with the same information in varying contexts.  According to Spiro, CFT is based upon the premise that the majority of knowledge to be taught is complex and ill-structured. In these complex and ill-structured domains, learners spontaneously restructure their own knowledge. The way students are taught has great impact: if students are exposed to various, connected cases they will develop flexible knowledge that can be transferred to different situations and in multiple contexts.  If the learner is called upon to combine their own experiences and incorporate new materials and then develop their own opinions on a given topic, greater knowledge will be constructed. When the CFT lessons are designed, the concepts and their relationships are presented in multiple, yet similar, ways: simulations, audio, video, text, images.

Both of these constructivist theories use the study of prior cases and use the knowledge gained in the past to solve future problems.  The student interaction with these narratives results in greater student learning.

Multimedia representations can be complex and multifaceted, and the linking attributes of hypermedia makes web 2.0 technologies well-suited for CFT lesson design. Twitter, for example, could help us connect with experts and other participants in case studies.  Simply adding video to modules constructed for online access would add a valuable digital literacy element. It is important to remember that the cases are not teaching the concepts, per se, but the student learns after reconstructing the information from the cases.  The exercise with the Plantation Letters was an effective introduction to the ideas and possibilities in the Cognitive Flexibility Theory, and I would recommend teachers interested in learning more about this and other theories to seek out and participate in similar interactions.

Learning Objects 

Learning Objects are useful resources that can be used in web-based modules in different learning theories, and the best learning objects can be reused in different classes and in different subjects. A resource can be tagged with descriptors that facilitate sharing and use.  There are designations, such as Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM), that identify certain Learning Objects as high-quality. Good educators have always accumulated learning objects for use in the classroom, and in the past, some teachers were quite protective of their favorite objects, whether proprietary or not.  Now digital content allows educators to access a growing database of resources, and the sharing of these resources is easier than ever.

I will first attempt to use Case Based and Cognitive Flexibility in the eighth grade social studies classroom.  There are myriad resources, many of a rich, narrative nature, that lend themselves to use in lessons designed following these models. For instance, the slave letters provide a great example of how digitized primary sources can be used.  Digitized letters, newspaper and magazine articles, as well as radio broadcasts and video clips can be used as learning objects. From the early history of North Carolina to more contemporary issues, there is really no aspect of the curriculum that could not feasibly be used in a cognitive flexibility activity.

Context Based Instruction

The idea that “…knowledge is less likely to remain inert when it is acquired in a problem-solving mode rather than in a factual-knowledge mode,” is at the heart of these pedagogical models.

As an educator, reading and thinking about these approaches to learning is both interesting and inspiring.

In Goal-Based Scenarios, it is critical that the teacher identify areas of student interests; of course, every good teacher knows that you have to get to know your students. Once the teacher is aware of student interests (and they are varied), then a learning scenario can be devised to involve the student with the curriculum. The optimal Goal-Based Scenarios embed curriculum and create goals that require students to develop a specific set of desired skills. The planning of a Goal-Based Scenario will begin with desired skills in mind, then develops goals that interest students (context). The seven steps can be followed when devising Goal-Based Scenarios:

1: Learning Goals

• content and process goals

2: Mission

• a relevant and realistic mission that will motivate students

3: Cover Story

• a plausible and important task that will create the context for learning

4: Roles

• students have specific tasks

5: Operations

• the activities students conduct to reach their goal

6: Resources

• necessary, even conflicting, resources to complete goal are provided to students

7: Feedback

When students are motivated and interested, real learning will inevitably take place. Goal-Based Scenarios take into account student needs and interests; in addition, students practice valuable 21^st century learning skills: using various means of communication, meaningful collaboration with peers, creativity, and critical thinking.

Adherents of Situated Cognition & Cognitive Apprenticeships hold that knowing is inseparable from doing and all knowledge is situated in authentic activities in relevant contexts. Skills are acquired through these authentic experiences in context and through communicating with peers and experts about those experiences. Like the Goal-Based Scenarios mentioned above, student learning activities in the Situated Cognition model should be focused toward a relevant outcome. In the classroom, the teacher is advised to model, coach, and fade. This is an excellent description of the teacher as facilitator model desired by many educators. Knowledge and learning comes from creative problem-solving and “thinking on the fly” rather than the storage and retrieval of conceptual knowledge; therefore, learn by doing can be considered the motto for this educational model.

Anchored Instruction

In the two learning models above, students learn desired, specific skills as they work to creatively to solve meaningful problems, problems often related to the real world and designed with student interests in mind. Anchored Instruction presents, often through a narrative, a realistic (but fictional) situation which raises an over-arching question or problem. As contrasted with Goal Based and Situated Cognition, the problems to be solved in Anchored Instruction are formulated and solved by the students. In the Jasper series, for example, students glean the necessary facts, often having to discern and discard irrelevant or superfluous information, from the narrative. This model seems to me, so far, the most difficult to create for the classroom. That’s why I’m working on one.

The STAR Legacy model also poses an interesting, real-life problem for students to solve in a series of specific steps. This problem is open-ended and provides opportunities for student reflection; this is Step 1: The Challenge. Students begin by activating prior knowledge through brainstorming exercises; students will revisit these thoughts later in the process; this is Step 2: Initial Thoughts. In Step 3: Perspectives and Resources, students use provided resources to work through the challenge. In Step 4: Assessment, students are formally assessed to find out what they have learned and what they can do with this knowledge. During Step 5: Wrap-Up, students return to their initial thoughts in Step 2 to compare them and reflect on what was learned as a result of the activity.

MOST Environments

The MOST model would help students improve reading comprehension skills through improving listening comprehension skills, an important, yet often overlooked, component of literacy. In addition, digital literacy skills can be enhanced through the inclusion of interesting, and therefore, motivational, audio, video, and interactive media. In addition, subtitles and captions can be used to support literacy and reading comprehension skills. The MOST model may be of interest and use to educators integrating Common Core, especially with its emphasis on the use of texts in increasing complexity.

There are several easy-to-use multimedia tools that lend themselves to storytelling and would be useful for the educator and/or student creating animation/videos for these context based instruction models.

Go!Animate - adds your dialogue to animation; basic is free and easy to use. Limited choices of characters and backgrounds.

Animoto - easy to make slideshows with music, text and transitions; free educator accounts

Storybird - flipbook creator

Photo Story 3 - free Microsoft product that combines images, text, voiceover, music, and transitions to make a video

What the 4C's Look Like

I had the honor and pleasure to present at the 2012 Collaborative Conference for Student Achievement: Engaging North Carolina in Transforming 21st Century Teaching and Learning. I was nervous, but the capacity crowd seemed friendly and eager to hear about the good things being done with educational technology in Asheboro City Schools. I hope you'll find something of interest, and I'll be happy to answer any questions. In fact, I'd be happy to come to your school district and repeat the presentation in person! What the 4 C's: Communication, Collaboration, Creativity and Critical Thinking Look Like in the Classroom

View more PowerPoint from barryrbarber

Models of Collaborative Learning

“Odds are pretty good that [students] will be asked to work with others from around the globe collaboratively to create content for diverse and wide-ranging audiences. Odds are also pretty good that they are going to need to read and write effectively in linked environments as they locate, analyze, remix, and share the best, most relevant content online for their own learning"(Richardson, 2010).

My initial reactions to these learning models were interest and a vision of how these may look in the classrooms of my school. I do, however, realize that there are barriers to the successful implementation of these learning models. Foremost is the dependence on student self-motivation. If students are unable or unwilling to maintain the focus and levels of perseverance and performance required, the time will be wasted. There is also a question of relevance: can I develop relevant learning opportunities for my students? The benefits of implementation will be increased student learning, student leadership, and participation in the decision making, problem-solving process. These skills will be needed for student success no matter their path in life.

There are similarities and differences between the models: each develops individual student knowledge through active participation in cooperative learning experiences. “Real learning moves beyond the memorization of facts, encourages the learner to be actively involved in the learning process, and occurs best when it occurs within a community of learners” (Trivette, 2005). Collaborative tools that facilitate these instructional models include Google Docs and Google Sites. They both allow students to work on documents or websites at the same time.

In Guided Design, students work collaboratively to investigate and solve real world problems and find answers to open ended questions; the collaborative nature of the student group models real-life situations: students must function as a member of a group, assessing and offering information and ideas, justifying or rejecting based upon merit and validity. Unlike the models that incorporate research, guided design is based on a student’s prior knowledge. The strengths of guided design include increased student motivation through the use of real world situations; students can develop collaborative problem solving skills and practice decision making skills. The weaknesses of guided instruction include difficulties for teachers to manage groups, especially in large classrooms; difficult to motivate unmotivated students. Teachers may also find it difficult to develop relevant learning activities.

Cooperative learning combines academics with social learning experiences in which students share responsibility to complete tasks. Students share and evaluate information and ideas; because student success depends on the group’s success, students must monitor each other’s work. While this has the benefit of increasing student motivation, a cooperative learning group saddled with an unmotivated student can suffer. However, this challenge can be educational and enlightening as students learn to deal with adversity. Students assume roles within the group; these roles can remain fixed or can rotate.

Problem-based learning requires students to develop knowledge, problem solving skills, collaborative skills, self-directed learning, and self-motivation as they work in groups to find solutions to realistic problems. Students synthesize prior and new information in effort to resolve the problem. The teacher facilitates learning by providing necessary motivation, monitoring, and scaffolding.

Situated Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeship requires the teacher to enlist the aid of experts to teach students skills in context. For example, students role play in a real or virtual environment: workshop, construction site, kitchen, or garden. Skype, Google+ hangout, and other tools that allow for virtual face-to-face communication between students and mentors can be used for Situated Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeship. The online delivery of this learning model may be facilitated through the use of avatars and virtual worlds.

The successful implementation of these learning models will lead to greater student self-motivation and an increase in student communication, collaboration, and critical thinking and creativity skills.

Richardson, W. (2010). Blogs, wikis, podcasts and other powerful web tools for classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Trivette, C. M. (2005). Effectiveness of guided design learning strategy on the acquisition of adult problem-solving skills. Bridges 3(1).

Personalized System of Instruction? That Sounds Like 1:1!

Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) is sometimes called the Keller Plan and that's because it was developed by Fred S. Keller, along with others, in the 1960s. The research shows that when compared to traditional lecture-based methods of instruction, The Keller Plan has an influence on learning that is significantly positive.

As I learn more about this method of instruction, I see its relation to the use of instructional technology, especially as this technology facilitates distance and independent, self-directed learning. Traditional classroom teachers, even those not yet in a 1:1 or technology rich environment, will most likely find they incorporate many, if not all, of the five elements of the Keller Plan.

• In PSI, written texts provide the medium through which new ideas and content should be presented. This is not to say that other media is not to be used (I would be hard pressed to find a teacher who says that the role of digital media is sure to decline), only that there is great instructional value in texts which are in the students possession; i.e., texts that are portable, can be read at a place and pace determined the student, and can be reviewed and annotated by the reader. My school is demonstrating a renewed emphasis on literacy and the use of grade level texts, and as we increase our use of ebooks and ereaders, we are seeing the potential in portable and personal text. This is not to say there are no drawbacks, but we are learning how to use this new technology.
• While the teacher may establish the order in which lessons are done and units of study completed, students proceed through the material at their own speed. Again, this sounds like a 1:1 classroom.
• Students have time to explore the material at their own pace; they are no longer compelled to stay on the same page. This is the promise of education enhanced through technology: personalized instruction.
• The previous bullet point notwithstanding, students must demonstrate mastery of the material before they are allowed to progress to the next unit. Students who are unable to demonstrate mastery are redirected and review unit materials. Being allowed to continue is, to behaviorists, sufficient motivation; classroom teachers, those jaded and otherwise, know that for some students, "being allowed" to move on to the next unit of study is hardly motivational.
• The future classroom teacher will be more of a facilitator of learning rather than the fount of knowledge. They guide students by addressing areas of weakness and modifying learning activities based on constant formative assessment. Teachers will model and reinforce the learning behaviors necessary for success.

I am eager to learn more about PSI through the creation of a learning module. The Audio-Tutorial approach is also suited for asynchronous distance learning, although the required assembly sessions may chafe learners used to the freedom of PSI. Like PSI, A-T students are themselves responsible for their own learning, and upfront planning by the instructor and facilitation through formative feedback lead to greater probability of student success.

Why Public Education?

The purpose of education, in my opinion, is to prepare students, with a love of learning and the training to take future experience and turn that into knowledge. To paraphrase Robert Maynard Hutchins, education “frees a person from the prison-house of class, race, time, place, background, family, and even nation." I also feel education plays a role in the sharing and shaping of local and national culture. Since most children spend a great deal of time being educated, educators have the power of the bully pulpit to promote these desirable personal qualities: love of freedom and respect for responsibility, cooperation and consideration for the common good, defense of the weak, etc. Education is also relevant to the propensity of a populace to function as a society. As Lord Henry Brougham said, "Education makes people easy to lead, but difficult to drive; easy to govern, but impossible to enslave." The truth of this statement brings into question the motives of our elected representatives and others whose actions are detrimental to education.

Photostory 3

Sometimes called PowerPoint on steroids, Photostory 3 is an excellent educational technology tool for students. Created by Microsoft and freely available, this program allows users to take still images, add narration, text, and a variety of effects, transitions, and music to create impressive multimedia presentations. One of the most attractive features is the Ken Burns effect: students can create zooms and pans that highlight selected portions of the image or add artistic expression to their project. Learn more from the Langwitches blog or from the University of Houston.